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Dubai
إمارة دبيّ |
| — emirate — |
| Emirate of Dubai |
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Dubai\'s skyline at night
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Flag |
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Location of Dubai in the UAE
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| Coordinates: 25°16′N 55°20′E / 25.267, 55.333 |
| Country
| United Arab Emirates
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| Emirate
| Dubai
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| Incorporated (town) |
June 9, 1833 |
| Incorporated (emirate) |
December 2, 1971 |
| Founder |
Maktoum bin Bati bin Suhail (1833) |
| Seat |
Dubai |
| Subdivisions | |
| Government |
| - Type |
Constitutional monarchy[citation needed] |
| - Emir
| Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum |
| - Crown Prince
| Hamdan bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum |
Area [Area of "Dubai emirate", includes artificial islands.] |
| - emirate
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4,114 km² (1,588.4 sq mi) |
| - Metro |
1,287.4 km² (497.1 sq mi) |
Population (2008)["Dubai: Profile of geographical entity including name variants. World Gazetteer. ] |
| - emirate |
1,679,272 |
| - Density |
408.18/km² (1,057.2/sq mi) |
| - Metro |
1,674,527 |
- Nationality ["Country and Metropolitan Stats in Brief. MPI Data Hub] |
43.3% Indian
15% Emirati
13.4% Pakistani
12% Arab (other)
7% Bangladeshi
9.3% Other |
| Time zone |
UAE standard time (UTC+4)
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Website:
http://www.dubai.ae/v7/en.portal Dubai Emirate
http://www.dm.gov.ae/wps/portal/MyHomeEn Dubai Municipality
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Dubai (in Arabic: دبيّ,
transliteration: dubaīy) can either refer to one of the seven emirates that constitute the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in the eastern Arabian Peninsula, or that emirate\'s main city, sometimes called "Dubai city" to distinguish it from the emirate.
The modern emirate of Dubai was created with the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971. However, written accounts documenting the existence of the city have existed at least 150 years prior to the formation of the UAE. Dubai shares legal, political, military and economic functions with the other emirates within a federal framework, although each emirate has jurisdiction over some functions such as civic law enforcement and provision and upkeep of local facilities. Dubai has the largest population and is the second largest emirate by area, after Abu Dhabi.[United Arab Emirates: metropolitan areas] With Abu Dhabi, it is one of only two emirates to possess veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country\'s legislature.[The Government and Politics of the Middle East and North Africa. D Long, B Reich. p.157] Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum dynasty since 1833. The emirates\' current ruler, Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the Prime Minister and Vice President of the UAE.
A majority of the emirate\'s revenues are from trade, manufacturing and financial services.[An Economic Profile of Dubai Dubai Healthcare City. 2000] Revenues from petroleum and natural gas contribute less than 6% (2006)[Oil share dips in Dubai GDP AMEInfo (9 June 2007). Retrieved on 15 October 2007.] of Dubai\'s US$ 37 billion economy (2005).[Dubai economy set to treble by 2015 ArabianBusiness.com (3 February 2007). Retrieved on 15 October 2007.] Dubai has attracted world-wide attention through innovative real estate projects [Dubai map with upcoming freehold developments] and sports events. This increased attention, coinciding with its emergence as a world business hub, has also highlighted human rights issues concerning its largely foreign workforce.[Mike Davis (2006) Fear and money in Dubai, New Left Review 41, pp. 47-68]
Etymology
In the 1820s, Dubai was referred to as Al Wasl by British historians. However, few records pertaining to the cultural history of the UAE or its constituent emirates exist due to the region\'s vocal traditions in recording and passing down folklore and myth. The linguistic origins of the word Dubai are also in dispute, as some believe it to have originated from Persian, while some believe that Arabic is the linguistic root of the word. According to Fedel Handhal, researcher in the history and culture of the UAE, the word Dubai may have come from the word Daba (a derivative of Yadub), which means to creep; the word may be a reference to the flow of Dubai Creek inland. [How did Dubai, Abu Dhabi and other cities get their names? Experts reveal all. UAEInteract.com. March 10, 2007]
History
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Very little is known about pre-Islamic culture in the south-east Arabian peninsula, except that many ancient towns in the area were trading centers between the Eastern and Western worlds. The remnants of an ancient mangrove swamp, dated at 7,000 years, were discovered during the construction of sewer lines near Dubai Internet City. The area had been covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coastline retreated inland, becoming a part of the city\'s present coastline.[History and Traditions of the UAE] Prior to Islam, the people in this region worshiped Bajir (or Bajar).[History and Background of the UAE] The Byzantine and Sassanian empires constituted the great powers of the period, with the Sassanians controlling much of the region. After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph, of the eastern Islamic world, invaded south-east Arabia and drove out the Sassanians. Excavations undertaken by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra (Jumeirah) indicate the existence of several artifacts from the Umayyad period.[The Coming of Islam and the Islamic Period in the UAE. King, Geoffrey R. ] The earliest recorded mention of Dubai is in 1095, in the "Book of Geography" by the Spanish-Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri. The Venetian pearl merchant Gaspero Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai (Dibei) for its pearling industry.[Economic and Environmental Impacts of tourism on Dubai and Hawaii. McEachern, Nadeau, et al]
In the early 19th century, the Al Abu Falasa clan (House of Al-Falasi) of Bani Yas clan established Dubai, which remained a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833.[Country Profile: United Arab Emirates. United States Library of Congress] On 8 January 1820, the sheikh of Dubai and other sheikhs in the region signed the "General Maritime Peace Treaty" with the British government.[[http://www.alshindagah.com/september99/architecture.htm Modernity and tradition in Dubai architecture. Karim, Luiza] However, the town\'s geographical location continued to attract traders and merchants from around the region. The emir of Dubai was keen to attract foreign traders and lowered trade tax brackets, which lured traders away from Sharjah and Bandar Lengeh, which were the region\'s main trade hubs at the time.[THE EMIRATES OF ABU DHABI AND DUBAI:CONTRASTING ROLES IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM. Davidson, Christopher. March 2007]
 Al Fahidi Fort, built in 1800, is the oldest existing fort in Dubai Dubai\'s geographical proximity to India made it an important location. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen, chiefly those from India, many of whom eventually settled in the town. Dubai was known for its pearl exports until the 1930s. However, Dubai\'s pearling industry was damaged irreparably by the events of the First World War, and later on by the Great Depression in the late 1920s. Consequently, the city witnessed a mass migration of people to other parts of the Persian Gulf.[The UAE: Internal Boundaries And The Boundary With Oman. Archived Editions. Walker, J. ] Arbitration by the British and the creation of a buffer frontier running south eastwards from the coast at Ras Hasian resulted in a temporary cessation of hostilities.[The Middle East and North Africa. Schofield, C. p 175] However, border disputes between the emirates continued even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached that ended hostilities and border disputes between the two states.[Dubai. Carter, T and Dunston, L. Lonely Planet Publications] Electricity, telephone services and an airport were established in Dubai in the 1950s, when the British moved their local administrative offices from Sharjah to Dubai.[Dubai City. Melamid, Alexander. Jul 1989] In 1966 the town joined the newly independent country of Qatar to set up a new monetary unit, the Qatar/Dubai Riyal, after the deflation of the Gulf rupee.[ Oil was discovered in Dubai the same year, after which the town granted concessions to international oil companies. The discovery of oil led to a massive influx of foreign workers, mainly Indians and Pakistanis. As a result, the population of the city from 1968 to 1975 grew by over 300%, by some estimates.][Historic population statistics]
On 2 December 1971 Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi and five other emirates, formed the United Arab Emirates after former protector Britain left the Persian Gulf in 1971.["Six Persian Gulf Emirates Agree to a Federation". New York Times. Jul 19, 1971. pg. 4] In 1973, Dubai joined the other emirates to adopt a uniform currency: the UAE dirham. In the 1970s, Dubai continued to grow from revenues generated from oil and trade, even as the city saw an influx of Lebanese immigrants fleeing the civil war in Lebanon.["Beirut Showing Signs of Recovery From Wounds of War". New York Times. May 26, 1977. pg.2] The Jebel Ali Free Zone, comprising the Jebel Ali port (reputedly the world\'s largest man made port) was established in 1979, which provided foreign companies unrestricted import of labour and export capital.[The United Arab Emirates: Economic Vibrancy and US Interests. Asian Affairs. Peterson, JE. July 2002, Vol 34, Issue 2.]
The Persian Gulf War of 1990 had a huge impact on the city. Economically, Dubai banks experienced a massive withdrawal of funds due to uncertain political conditions in the region. During the course of the 1990s, however, many foreign trading communities — first from Kuwait, during the Persian Gulf War, and later from Bahrain, during the Shia unrest, moved their businesses to Dubai.[Dubai Focus] The success of the Jebel Ali free zone allowed the city to replicate its model to develop clusters of new free zones, including Dubai Internet City, Dubai Media City and Dubai Maritime City. The construction of Burj Al Arab, the world\'s tallest freestanding hotel, as well as the creation of new residential developments, were used to market Dubai for purposes of tourism. Since 2002, the city has seen an increase in private real estate investment in recreating Dubai\'s skyline[Robust growth poses threat of inflation to high-flying Dubai. Kuwait Times. Mar. 8, 2007]
Geography
 The Margham desert sand dunes south of the city of Dubai  Mean and record minimum and maximum temperature in Dubai Dubai is situated on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and is roughly at sea level (16 m/52 ft above). The emirate of Dubai shares borders with Abu Dhabi in the south, Sharjah in the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman in the southeast. Hatta, a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at 25.2697° N 55.3095° E and covers an area of 4,114 km² (1,588 mi²).
Dubai lies directly within the Arabian Desert. However, the topography of Dubai is significantly different from that of the southern portion of the UAE in that much of Dubai\'s landscape is highlighted by sandy desert patterns, while gravel deserts dominate much of the southern region of the country.[Environmental Development and Protection in the UAE. Aspinall, Simon] The sand consists mostly of crushed shell and coral and is fine, clean and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plans, known as sabkha, give way to a north-south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide.[Earthquake risk in Dubai \'lower than that of London\']. UAEInteract.com] Experts also predict that the possibility of a tsunami in the region is also minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger a tsunami. The sandy desert surrounding the city supports wild grasses and occasional date palm trees. Desert hyacinths grow in the sabkha plans east of the city, while acacia and ghaf trees grow in the flat plains within the proximity of the Western Al Hajar mountains. Several indigenous trees such as the date palm and neem as well as imported trees like the eucalypts grow in Dubai\'s natural parks. The houbara bustard, striped hyena, caracal, desert fox, falcon and Arabian oryx are common in Dubai\'s desert. Dubai is on the migration path between Europe, Asia and Africa, and more than 320 migratory birds pass through the emirate in spring and autumn. The waters of Dubai are home to more than 300 species of fish, including the hammour.
Dubai Creek runs northeast-southwest through the city. The eastern section of the city forms the locality of Deira and is flanked by the emirate of Sharjah in the east and the town of Al Aweer in the south. The Dubai International Airport is located south of Deira, while the Palm Deira is located north of Deira in the Persian Gulf. Much of Dubai\'s real estate boom is concentrated to the west of the Dubai Creek, on the Jumeirah coastal belt. Port Rashid, Jebel Ali, Burj Al Arab, the Palm Jumeirah and theme based free zone clusters such as Business Bay are all located in this section. Five main routes — E 11 (Sheikh Zayed Road), E 311 (Emirates Road), E 44 (Dubai-Hatta Highway), E 77 (Dubai-Al Habab Road) and E 66 (Oud Metha Road) — run through Dubai, connecting the city to other towns and emirates. Additionally, several important intra-city routes, such as D 89 (Al Maktoum Road/Airport Road), D 85 (Baniyas Road), D 75 (Sheikh Rashid Road), D 73 (Al Dhiyafa Road), D 94 (Jumeirah Road) and D 92 (Al Khaleej/Al Wasl Road) connect the various localities in the city. The eastern and western sections of the city are connected by Al Maktoum Bridge, Al Garhoud Bridge, Al Shindagha Tunnel, Business Bay Crossing and Floating Bridge.
Dubai has a hot and, at times, humid climate (drier during extreme heat) with many months recording temperatures of over 40 °C (104 °F) (refer to accompanying table for recorded mean minimum and maximum temperatures during the year). Rainfall is generally light, with a mean of about 150 millimetres (6 in) per year; precipitation is usually centered around January, February and March. However, heavy rain is not uncommon in Dubai during the winter months and January 2008 saw a record of 120mm (or 5") of rain falling in just 24 hours, [Average mean rainfall for Dubai. UAEInteract.com] The mean humidity in Dubai is about 60% and is higher during the cooler winter months.
Governance and politics
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Dubai\'s government operates within the framework of a constitutional monarchy[citation needed], and has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833. The current ruler, Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints 8 members in two-term periods to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body.[Executive and Legislative Branches. US Library of Congress] The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services and upkeep of local facilities.[Organizational Chart. Dubai Municipality] DM is chaired by Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum, deputy ruler of Dubai and comprises several departments such as the Roads Department, Planning and Survey Department, Evironment and Public Health Department and Financial Affairs Department. In 2001, Dubai Municipality embarked on an e-Government project with the intention of providing 40 of its city services through its web portal (Dubai.ae). Thirteen such services were lauched by October 2001, while several other services were expected to be operational in the future.
Dubai and Ras al Khaimah are the only emirates that do not conform to the federal judicial system of the United Arab Emirates. The emirate\'s judicial courts comprise the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. The Court of First Instance consists of the Civil court, which hears all civil claims, the Ciminal Court, which hears claims originating from police complaints, and Sharia Court, which is responsible for matters between Muslims. Non-Muslims do not appear before the Sharia Court. The Court of Cassation is the apex court of the emirate and only hears disputes on matters of law.[The UAE Court System. Consulate of the United States. ] The Dubai Police Force, founded in 1956 in the locality of Naif, has law enforcement jurisdiction over the emirate; the force is under direct command of Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum, ruler of Dubai.
Article 25 of the Constituion of the UAE provides for the equitable treatment of persons with regard to race, nationality, religious beliefs or social status. However, many of Dubai\'s 250,000 foreign laborers live in conditions described by Human Rights Watch as being "less than human."[Human Rights Watch - Building Towers, Cheating Workers: Exploitation of Migrant Construction Workers in the United Arab Emirates][Human Rights Watch - Building Towers, Cheating Workers: Exploitation of Migrant Construction Workers in the United Arab Emirates - PDF][UAE to Allow Construction Unions][Dubai Fire Investigation Launched] NPR reports that workers "typically live eight to a room, sending home a portion of their salary to their families, whom they don\'t see for years at a time." On 21 March 2006, workers at the construction site of Burj Dubai, upset over bus timings and working conditions, rioted: damaging cars, offices, computers, and construction tools.[Labour unrest hampers Burj Dubai work Khaleej Times (AP report), 22 March 2006]["Burj Dubai workers who protested may be sued" Khaleej Times, 24 March 2006][LABOUR IN THE UAE Gulf News articles on Labour Law in the UAE, protests, etc] Judicial rulings in Dubai with regard to foreign nationals were brought to light by the alleged attempts to cover up information on the rape of Alexandre Robert, a 15 year old French-Swiss national, by three locals, one of whom was HIV positive[In Rape Case, a French Youth Takes On Dubai. New York Times. Nov 1, 2007] and by the recent mass imprisonment of migrant laborers, most of whom were from India, on account of their protests against poor wages and living conditions.[Indian workers strike for better deal. Times of India. Times Network. Nov. 2, 2007] Prostitution, though illegal by law, is conspicuously present in the emirate because of an economy that is largely based on tourism and trade. Research conducted by the American Center for International Policy Studies (AMCIPS) found that Russian and Ethiopian women are the most common prostitutes, as well as women from some African countries, while Indian prostitutes are part of a well organized trans-Oceanic prostitution network.[Stoenescu, Dan. Globalising Prostitution in the Middle East. American Center For International Policy Studies. Retrieved on 2007-05-10.] A 2007 PBS documentary entitled Dubai: Night Secrets reported that prostitution in clubs is tolerated by authorities and many foreign women work there without being coerced, attracted by the money.[Mimi Chakarova. Dubai: Night Secrets, PBS Frontline, 13 September 2007][New York Times - Fearful of Restive Foreign Labor, Dubai Eyes Reforms][Middle East Times - Strike rages on at world\'s tallest tower in Dubai]
- See also: Human rights in Dubai
Demographics
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| Year
| Population
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| 18221 | 1,200 [Historic population statistics]
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| 19001 | 10,000 [Historic population statistics]
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| 19301 | 20,000 [Historic population statistics]
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| 19401 | 38,000 |
| 19541 | 20,000 |
| 19601 | 40,000 [Historic population statistics]
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| 1968 | 58,971 [Historic population statistics]
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| 1975 | 183,000 [Historic population statistics]
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| 1985 | 370,800 [Historic population statistics]
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| 1995 | 674,000 |
| 2005 | 1,204,000
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| 1 The town of Dubai first conducted a census in 1968. All population figures in this table prior to 1968 are estimates obtained from various sources.
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According to the census conducted by the Statistics Center of Dubai, the population of the emirate was 1,422,000 as of 2006, which included 1,073,000 males and 349,000 females.[Dubai in Figures 2006. Government of Dubai. Statistical Center] As of 1998, 17% of the population of the emirate was made up of UAE nationals. Approximately 85% of the expatriate population (and 71% of the emirate\'s total population) was Asian, chiefly Indian (51%), Pakistani (16%), Bangladeshi (9%) and Filipino (3%).["Young Iranians Follow Dreams to Dubai" The New York Times, by HASSAN M. FATTAH. Published: December 4 2005] In addition, 16% of the population (or 288,000 persons) lived in collective labour accommodation were not identified by ethnicity or nationality, but were thought to be primarily Asian.[The Changing Demographics of the UAE] The median age in the emirate was about 27 years. The crude birth rate, as of 2005, was 13.6%, while the crude death rate was about 1%.[Basic Vital Statistical Indicators - Emirate of Dubai]
Although Arabic is the official language of Dubai, Persian, Malayalam, English, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Tamil, and Tagalog are widely spoken. Article 7 of the UAE\'s Provisional Constitution declares Islam the official state religion of the UAE. The government subsidizes almost 95 percent of mosques and employs all imams; approximately 5 percent of mosques are entirely private, and several large mosques have large private endowments.[Country Profile: United Arab Emirates (UAE). United States Library of Congress]
Dubai has large Hindu, Sikh, and Christian communities. Non-Muslim groups can own their own houses of worship, where they can practice their religion freely, by requesting a land grant and permission to build a compound. Groups that do not have their own buildings must use the facilities of other religious organizations or worship in private homes. Non-Muslim religious groups are permitted to openly advertise group functions; however, proselytizing or distributing religious literature is strictly prohibited under penalty of criminal prosecution, imprisonment, and deportation for engaging in behaviour offensive to Islam.
- See also: Roman Catholicism in the United Arab Emirates
Economy
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Dubai\'s gross domestic product as of 2005 was US$37 billion.["Dubai - Overview:", USAToday.com, retrieved 22 July, 2007] revenues from oil and natural gas currently account for less than 6% of the emirate\'s revenues.[ It is estimated that Dubai produces 240,000 barrels of oil a day and substantial quantities of gas from offshore fields. The emirate\'s share in UAE\'s gas revenues is about 2%. Dubai\'s oil reserves h]ve diminished significantly and are expected to be exhausted in 20 years.["UAE Oil and Gas"] Trade (16%), entrepôt (15%) and financial services (11%) are the largest contributors to Dubai\'s economy. [Prospects of Dubai Economic Sectors. Dubai Chamber of Commerce. 2003] Dubai\'s top re-exporting countries include Iran (US$ 790 million), India (US$ 204 million) and Saudi Arabia (US$ 194 million). The emirate\'s top importing countries are Japan (US$ 1.5 billion), China (US$ 1.4 billion) and the United States (US$ 1.4 billion).
Historically, Dubai and its twin across the Dubai creek, Deira (independent of Dubai City at that time), became important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city\'s banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai maintained its importance as a trade route through the 1970s and 1980s. The city of Dubai has a free trade in gold and until the 1990s was the hub of a "brisk smuggling trade"["Dubayy". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008] of gold ingots to India, where gold import was restricted.
Dubai is considered to be an important tourist destination and its port, Jebel Ali, constructed in the 1970s, has the largest man-made harbor in the world. Dubai is also increasingly developing as a hub for service industries such as IT and finance, with the establishment of a new Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC). The government has set up industry-specific free zones throughout the city. Dubai Internet City, combined with Dubai Media City as part of TECOM (Dubai Technology, Electronic Commerce and Media Free Zone Authority) is one such enclave whose members include IT firms such as EMC Corporation, Oracle Corporation, Microsoft, and IBM, and media organisations such as MBC, CNN, Reuters and AP.
The Dubai Financial Market (DFM) was established in March 2000 as a secondary market for trading securities and bonds, both local and foreign. As of Q4 2006, its trading volume stood at about 400 billion shares worth US$ 95 billion. The DFM had a market capitalization of about US$ 87 billion.[World\'s Tallest Hotel Opens Its Doors. British Broadcasting Corporation] As of July 2007, the Burj Dubai became the world\'s tallest structure and is expected to be taller by several hundred feet, once construction is complete. Construction should finish in late 2008 and the building occupied by September of 2009. There will be an estimated 164 floors, the top floor at 624.1 meters, or 2,058 feet. Including the antennae and spire the total height of the Burj Dubai will be an estimated 818 meters, or 2,684 feet.[Samsung to build tallest building. British Broadcasting Corporation.]
- See also: Developments in Dubai and Tourism in Dubai
Transport
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Dubai International Airport (IATA: DXB), the hub for Emirates Airline, services the city of Dubai and other emirates in the country. The airport served a total of over 34 million passengers and over 260,000 flights in 2007.[Dubai International - world\'s fastest growing airport in 2007. AMEInfo (2008-01-09). Retrieved on 2008-01-10.] The Dubai International Airport ranked 17th among international airports for total cargo traffic in 2006.[World\'s Busiest Airports - Preliminary Rankings (PDF). Airports Council International] A third terminal and a new concourse are currently under construction and are both due to open in mid-2008.[Dubai International Airport maintains double-digit growth in the first half of 2007. Dubai International Aiport (2007-07-05). Retrieved on 2008-01-10.] The new terminal will be dedicated to Emirates Airline and will fully support the new Airbus A380. The development of Dubai World Central International Airport, currently under construction in Jebel Ali, was announced in 2004. The first phase is expected to be completed by 2008, and once operational the new airport will host foreign airlines. Emirates (both the passenger and cargo operations) will remain in Dubai International Airport.[Emirates for corridor between DIA and new mega airport Gulf News (27 October 2007). Retrieved on 3 November 2007.]
Dubai has a large bus system that services 69 routes and transported over about 90 million people in 2006. The Road and Transport Authority (RTA) announced in 2006 that an additional 620 new buses will be added to its fleet of 170 double decker buses.[Fleet of new buses for Dubai 7days 2007] Although the main mode of transportation in Dubai is by private vehicle, Dubai also has an extensive taxi system.
A $3.89 billion Dubai Metro project is under construction for the emirate. The Metro system is expected to be partially ope | | | | |
